Horse, Pig and Cat are resistant o Canine Distemper Dogs are resistant to Feline Panleukopenia (Feline Distemper) Chicken resistant to Anthrax Natural Killer (NK) cells kills targets coated with IgG IgG: Main antibody (Immunoglobulin) in serum (75%). IgG is the smallest immunoglobulin. Opsonisation is faster with IgG. IgG has two light chains (kappa and lamda) and two Gamma heavy chains. IgG is a gamma globulin. IgG renders immunity to foetus after crossing placenta. Booster immunization increase the level of IgG IgM is a pentamer, has J chain (IgM is the first antibody appears: 10%). IgM is produced in body during primary immune response. IgM has no effect in areas other than in blood in acute inflammation. IgM is most active in opsonisation, complement activation and in antigen neutralization. IgM is the largest antibody IgA concentration is little in blood and is transported through intestinal cells. IgA can’t activate complement, can’t do opsonisation (16% of total Immunoglobulin) IgE: Birds with Mast cells and Basophills causing release of chemical mediators to cause acute inflammation and in parasitic infestation. IgE mediates Type 1 reaction. Hal lie is shortest in IgE (2 to 3 days). Serum concentration is 0.01% IgD is absent in most animals. IgD is present in species from cartilaginous fish to human (with the possible exception of birds). 0.2% Antigen processing cells are Macrophages, Dentritic cells, B cells. Dentritic cells are mononuclear cells seen mainly in lymphoid organs Exogenous antigens after processing binds to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules and Interleukin-1 (IL-1) which is then presented to antigen recognizing cells. Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) on an average has 2X105 MHC class II molecules Endogenous antigens bind to MHC class Ia and reacheds cell’s surface Cell Mediated immune (CMI) response in Exogenous antigens Humoral immune response in Endogenous antigensViolent or accelerated immune response to antigen is Allergy or Atopy Type I Hypersensitivity is Anaphylaxis: IgE mediated: Seen in drug administration, serum administration, insect bite, pollen, dust etc. With weal and Flare reaction Type II Hypersensitivity is Cytotoxic hypersensitivity: Seen in blood transfusion, haemolytic anaemia, parasitic infestations (Trypanosomiasis, Babesiosis), penicillins, Cephalosporins Fragment to which antigen binds is FAB Upon antigen exposure, latent period of about 4 to 6 days, then antibodies are detected Peak antibody titre occurs at about two weeks after antigen exposure. In primary immune response, main Antibody is IgM. But in secondary immune response main antibody is IgG. Type III Hypersensitivity is Immune complex mediated: Seen in Pesticides, Leishmaniasis, tumour antigens or Ig mediated. Arthus reaction, Serum sickness, Glomerulonephritis and Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE) Proteins like C1, C2 and C3 are deficient in SLE, Rheumatoid fever (IgG). Absence of C3 makes animal susceptible to bacterial infection due to lack of Opsonisation, Phagocytosis, Chemotaxis Type IV Hypersensitivity is Delayed type Hypersensitivity: Mediated by T lymphocytes. Seen in Tuberculin reaction, Graft Vs Host reaction, granulomatous reaction, Type IV mediated mainly by T- Lymphocytes Bovine Herpes Virus 1, BVD, Blue Tongue, Bovine Immunodeficiency Virus causes decreased production of CD4+ and CD8+, lymphoid depletion T -Suppressor cells, suppresses immunity (IL-10) IgD is not found in serum due to lysis by serum proteases Reagent type of antibodies in IgE Pb, Hg and Cadmium are immunotoxic leading to immunosuppression Zn is essential for immunity Shape of antibody is Y shape. Antibody has four chains. Two heavy chains and two light chains Poly concreters: Polythene concreters Poli concreters: Hair concreters Burn area of skin remains sterile for about 20 hours. Antibody unites with antigen at the variable end of antibody molecule-paratope Aspirin decreases Phagocytosis and Lymphocytic functions ‘Class Switching’ or Isotype switching: IgMIgG mediated by IL 4 Agenesis is complete absence of an organ or tissue Aplasia is complete failure of development of an organ or tissue Hypoplasia is failure of an organ to develop to its normal size Atrophy is reduction in size of an organ or tissue than its normal size Hypertrophy is increase in size of an organ or tissue due to increased cell size Hyperplasia is increase in size of an organ or tissue due to increase in cell number Metaplasia is substitution of one cell type by another type of cells Vitamin A deficiency causes Metaplasia Dysplasia is abnormal development of cells in a tissue or organ Anaplasia is reversion of cells to a more Primitive or embryonic type Benign tumour cells are of adult type but in Malignant tumour cells are of embryonic type Benign tumour: ‘oma’ eg: fibroma, chondroma, papilloma Malignant tumour: has suffix sarcoma and carcinoma Hamaytia is a tissue defect of cells normally found in a particular area Hamartoma is tumour and excessive focal overgrowth of mature cells Chorista or Choriosarcoma: Tissue defect of structures not normally found in that area In white horse or Grey horse, melanosarcoma is common Squamous cell carcinoma (horn cancer, eye cancer) is very common in Hereford cattle Viruses causing neoplasms are Retro virus (leukoma), Papova virus (Papilloma, Polyoma), Hepadna virus, Herpes virus (Marek’s Disease) Polyneuritis and malignant lymphoma in poultry by Marek’s Disease virus: T cells Benzapyrene has affinity to mitochondrial DNA Contact inhibition is absent in neoplasm Fibrinolectin is decreased in neoplastic cells, decreased Calcium in cells. Fibrinolectin suppresses invasiveness in normal cells Vitamin A (anti-neoplastic) produces gap junction and thus prevents growth or spread o tumour B lymphocyte tumour in Plastocytoma Metastasis is spread of tumours by invasion. No metastasis for basal cell carcinomas Tumor spread by lymphatic system (always to heart) is known as Lymphatic Permeation and forms Tumour Emboli Sometimes lymphatic metastasis doesn’t develop due to inflammation of lymph gland and is known as Skip metastasis Tumour metastasis to abnormal sites is known as Retrograde metastasis Metastyasis through blood is common route for most of sarcomas (connective tissue tumours) Common sites for tumour lodgment are Liver, Lungs, Kidney, Brain, Bones Most tumor cells are phagocytosed by Neutrophills, Macrophages and and NK cells Decreased Glutathione and Catalase in cancer cells makes cancer cells susceptible to Macrophages Respiratory burst is mutagenic and act as tumour promoter TNF released by Macrophages when activated by LPS Precedence of horn cancer is highest in Kankrej (squamous cell carcinoma) Cytokines secreted by tumour cells or by macrophages are known as cachectin which causes decreased fat deposits In most of malignant neoplasms, hypercalcaemia occurs along with hypokalaemia and hyponatraemia Grading of neoplasm is defined as the microscopic and macroscopic deree of tumour differentiation Broder’s tumour grading i. Grade I: less than 25% aplastic cells ii. Grade II: 25% to 50 % aplastic cells iii. Grade III: 50% to 75% aplastic cells iv. Grade IV: more than 75% aplastic cells Staging means extend of increase spread of tumour Epithelial tumours are Papiloma, Squamous cell carcinoma (Horn cancer). Epithelial pearls or cell nest (Stratum germinatavum or Stratum basale proliferation) Basal cell carcinoma: Hair cell carcinoma has Rodent ulcer appearance or known as Jacob’s ulcer Adenoma and Adenocarcinoma are benign and malignant tumour of glandular epithelium Aflatoxin causes Bile duct and Liver cell tumours Semionoma is seen in castrated and cryptorchid animals Adamantinoma is tumour of enamel of teeth. Common in cattle Myxomas or Myxosarcoma is tumour of fibrous tissue capable of producing mucin and anaplasia with spindle shaped cells Lipoma is tumour of fat cells, subcutaneous, subserosa, mesentery or submucosa Chondroma is benign; chonchosarcoma is malignant tumour (cartilage cells) Osteoma and osteosarcoma are bone tumours On skull, scapula, pelvic bones known as Compact osteosarcoma On long bones, they are known as Spongy osteoma Leomyoma and Leomyosarcoma: cancer of smooth muscles Rhabdomyoma and Rhabdomyosarcoma: Cancer of skeletal muscles Haemangioma and Haemangiosarcoma: Cancer of blood vessels Peste des Petits Ruminants characterized by Giant cell pneumonia Antitoxins are antibodies which unite and neutralize toxins Agglutinins are antibody which unite with Antigen in cellular and clumping Antibodies stimulating phagocytosis by direct intervention are known as Opsonins Antibody are Glycoprotein The size of an antibody molecule is about 10 nm Antibodies produced by Plasma cells Antigen can be a polysaccharide or a protein The amino acid sequence in the tips of the “Y” varies greatly among different antibodies. This variable region, composed of 110-130 amino acids, give the antibody its specificity for binding antigen. African Horse Sickness or Equine Plague or Equine Distemper Ruminants are placed on left side (rumen down) for postmortem examination. Horses are placed on right side. Dog placed on vertebral column. Akenesis is paralysis Uterus unicornis seen in White heifer disease. Hypoplasia of cervix. Uterus unicornis may be diagnosed by palpation, ultrasound, or hysteroscopy. Pregnancy is possible but risk of genetic transmission of the abnormality. Single sex-linked gene defect Failure of Mullerian duct to fuse at distal end leads to occurrence of two cervixes, two uterine bodies one or two vagina and known as Uterus didelphys Cervix: Cervix bifida Oophoritis: Due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Herpes virus Salpingitis: Due to Trichomonas fetus Pseudocyesis or pseudo pregnancy: Female dog, Rabbit, Doe Infectious Pustular Vulvovaginitis by Herpes virus: IBR IPV Early abortion: 3-4 months: Trichomoniasis Middle abortion: 5-6 months: Compylobacteriosis Late abortion: 7-9 months: Brucellosis, BHV-1, Leptospirosis Failure of development of mesonephric tubules and don’t connect with vas deferens leading to blind tubules with spermatozoa is spermatocoele Hypospadias: Urethral opening in ventral side of penis Epispadias: Urethral opening in dorsal side of penis Phallocampsis (clubbed penis): deviation of penis if spiral then corkscrew penis If ventral then Rainbow penis Hydrocoele: Accumulation of serous fluid in tunica vaginalis Necrosis of brain neurons is known as Encephalomalacia Necrosis of spinal neurons is known as Myelomalacia Necrosis of grey matter is known as Polio Encephalomalacia Necrosis of white matter is known as Polio Leucoencephalomalacia Necrosed cells of brain scavenged by Microglial cells is known as Satellitosis Dead neurons engulfed by Microglial cells is known as Neuronophagia Inflammation of dura mater is Pachymeningitis Inflammation of pia mater is Leptomeningitis Influenza and Para Influenza causes congenital Hydrocephalus Cerebellum hypoplasia seen in BVD, Hog cholera, Feline panleukopenia Cranioschisis is failure of cranium to fuse resulting in hernia of meninges: cranium bifidum Hernia of meninges is meningocoele Purulent lymphocytic and proliferative encephalitis is Listerial infection. pH 7.4 to 8 Pleocytosis is increased number of WBCs in CSF Perivascular cuffing by infiltration of lymphocytes in Robin Virchow space In brain neurons undergo liquifactive necrosis Vacoulation in grey matter and white matter, medulla, pons and in mid brain is seen in Scrapie, BSE due to prion proteins (PrP) Neuritis is inflammation of neurons seen in MD, Strangles Presence of albumin in urine indicates damage to glomerulus Most important cause of haematuria is Braken fern poisoning Haemoglobinuria: by Leptospira, Babesia, Phosphorus deficiency, Se Uraemia is characterized by headache, vomiting, convulsion, hyperirritability, ulcers in oral cavity and stomach, haemosiderosis and thrombocytopenia Glycosuria occurs in Diabetes mellitus dogs and in sheep infected by Clostridium welchii type D (Enterotoxaemia) Degeneration and necrosis of tubular epithelium without inflammation is nephrosis. Uraemia, oliguria and anuria occurs in nephrosis Glomerulonephritis or Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN) is of five types Leptospirosis in animals cause Interstitial nephritis Inflammation of renal pelvis and parenchyma is pyelonephritis Auto immune haemolytic anaemia in foals Macrocytic anaemia in acute blood loss, shock or haemolysis Deficiency of Vitamin B12, Folic acid, Niacin Macrocytic normochromic anaemia Microcytic anaemia in chronic blood loss, Iron or copper deficiency Variation in size of RBC is known as Anisocytosis Cattle Variation in shape of RBC is known as Poikilocytosis Heinz bodies (also referred to as "Heinz-Ehrlich bodies") are degenerating Hemoglobin. Excessive lysis of RBC with icterus, Haemoglobinuria in Haemolytic anaemia Abrasion: Mechanical injury with removal of superficial layer produced by scrapping or rubbing. eg: skin abrasion (epidermal layer is removed) Contusion (Bruise): Mechanical injury with unbroken skin but underlying tissues injured. Here damage to blood vessels with extravasations of blood into tissues occurs. Concussion: Functional disturbance of CNS with or without loss of consciousness following injury to head Laceration: Wound in which a tear disruptive stretching of tissues. It has irregular edges Incision: Smooth, narrow, long, clean type of wound produced by sharp objects such as knife with minimal damage of tissue and with clean edges Puncture wound or Perforating wound: Wound produced by long narrow instrument. It is penetrating when instrument pierces tissue. Perforating when there is an entrance and exit wound. eg: gunshot wound with exit Rupture: Injury produced by overstretching of tissues until fibers break due to excessive distension Fracture: Injury to bone, teeth, cartilage, hoof, horn, claw, where there is loss of continuity of hard structures Sprain or Strain: Injury of joint with torn of supporting ligaments around the joint or overstretched ligaments Luxation or Dislocation: Injury to joint whereby anatomical relation of body structure is not maintained due to torn of ligaments. Injury due to pressure If pressure exerted slowly for a considerable period of time, then it causes atrophy Bedsores: Pressure injuries and are focal areas of necrosis Stricture: Stenosis caused by connective tissues caused by obstruction in the hollow organs due to any foreign bodies Injuries due to malposition Volvulus: Rotation of small intestine around its mesenteric attachment Torsion: Twisting of organ around itself as with large intestine of horse or uterus of cow. Intussusception: Telescoping or invagination of one portion of intestine into posterior portion of gut Prolapse: Appearing of organ or part of organ through natural or artificial body openings Eversion: When rectum turns inside out and protrudes through anus or if vagina turns inside out and protrudes through vulva Eventration: Organ or a portion of organ protrudes through tear in the ventral abdominal wall (by horn bulling) Hernia: Protrusion of organ through natural or artificial body opening. It has a hernia ring, hernia sac and hernia contents eg: Diaphragmatic hernia common in buffaloes (cardia auscultation technique) Strangulation: When veins of an organ is compressed by malposition of viscera Injuries due to changes in temperature Burns: Due to application of dry heat or flames Scalds: Due to application of moist heat or steam with acids or alkalis also Heat stroke: Due to excessive heat retention
